Female education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Female education - Essay Example What will be the impact on the efficiency and life style of the female faculty staff if they are provided with the massage facility in order to reduce the level of stress in imparting their too heavy pedagogical duties H3. The holistic participation in the health alternative practice of therapeutic massage treatments improve a lot the quality of life of female faculty working in the Teacher Education program at this (Name) University. The population for this study will consist of thirty female faculties working in the Teacher Education program at a (Name) University. The group of thirty female faculties will participant in a pretest and posttest Perceived Stress Scale of 10 items. Fifteen female faculty participants, randomly selected from the group of thirty, will receive three therapeutic massages over a six-week period. The massages will be designed to reduce stress, and to relax and revitalize the body, mind, and spirit. The fifteen female faulty participants receiving therapeutic massage will become the experimental group, whereas, the remaining fifteen participants of the original group of thirty will become the control group. To acquire the necessary data regarding stress, John D. and Catherine T. MacArthurs' Perceived Stress Scale of 10 items will be administered to thirty female faculties working in the Teacher Education program at a (Name) University. The Perceived Stress Scale is available at http://www.maces.ucsf.edu/research/Psychosocial/notebook/PPS10.html. Permission for use of this scale is not necessary when used for academic research or educational purposes. Data Collection Approval to conduct the study of quality of life of higher education female faculty working in the Teacher Education program at a (Name) University to determine what if any difference the effects of therapeutic massage designed to relax and revitalize the mind, body, and spirit has on stress reduction and management, and overall quality of life will be sought from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at Capella University and at Minot State University. Approval from both institutions will allow the primary investigator to conduct the study in fairness and good faith. Return of the surveys will imply consent on the part of respondents to participate in the study. The survey will be mailed from the Office of the Secretary of Teacher Education on the (Name) University campus. The survey will be returned in a pre-addressed, postage paid envelope to (Name), independent investigator, data collector and analyzer. (Name's) office is located in the Math and Computer Science Building on the campus the (Name) University. The independent investigator will code response envelopes to identify respondents for follow-up purposes. Instruments and envelopes will be separated upon receipt by the independent inv

Medical Microbiology and Immunology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Medical Microbiology and Immunology - Essay Example In the U.K, the primary responsible animal for Campylobacteriosis is poultry. Immune defences against the infection can be both innate and adaptive. In most cases, Campylobacter infections are not medically treated. The infection is known to disappear on its own without necessarily having to undergo clinical procedures. However, severe cases are medically dealt with, where antibiotics are used to treat most cases. On the other hand, adaptive immune responses also apply. Frequent occurrences of the infection can cause the body to adapt to the infection and respond to its presence in the body in its own way. In such instances, the body develops its own defence mechanism to tackle Campylobacteriosis. Quite a substantial number of animals can cause Campylobacteriosis. In the case of U.K, poultry ranks number one. In this regard, the primary concern revolves around poultry and poultry products in relation to bacteria entry into the body, infection occurrence, and transmission of the infection. Intestinal tracts of poultry are the common grounds where Campylobacter jejuni bacteria are found (DuPont, 2011, p.307). Entry of the bacteria into the body follows consumption of contaminated or infected products. Since the bacteria can also be found in untreated water, drinking untreated water could also cause the infection. The life cycle of the bacteria primarily depends in the host environment, and is it passed through feces. The transmission of the infection occurs between animals and humans, specifically poultry in the U.K. There are a number of clinical features associated with Campylobacter infections. These are: fever, nausea, vomiting, cramping abdominal pain, and watery and sometimes bloody diarrhoea (DuPont, 2011, p.318). The infection manifests itself in a minimum of two days and a maximum of ten days. The infection can last for a period of up to seven days, with or without treatment. This

Strategic interactions of players in Oligopoly Markets

Strategic interactions of players in Oligopoly Markets The strategic interaction between players in the oligopoly markets gives its study a tint of dynamism. This interdependence nature of oligopolies brings about the concept of conjectural behaviour, a situation whereby the actions and decisions of firms in the markets depends on the actions and decisions of the others. This brings about many of the theoretical problems in modelling oligopolistic behaviour (Waterson 1984, pg 17). An extension of such problem is borne on the willingness of firms to gain market power, and most cases; it is done through integration into lines of business that are related. Literature varies with respect to the theoretical aspect of integrating related firms with unrelated ones, as there has been mixed results in the area of profitability. Rumelt found out that firms that are not vertically integrated are more profitable (Rumelt 1976). Whereas, the situation was different with Luffman and Reed, who argued that vertically integrated firms are more profitable (Luffman and Reed 1984). Policy actions is said to cause a loss in social welfare rather than the actions of the firms themselves, and that integration is used strategically to achieve anticompetitive effects (Cowling and Mueller 1978). This study assesses the measurement of monopoly profit in a collusive oligopolistic market and also deals with the estimation of welfare loss in the distribution aspect of the British film industry. It will also deal with whether vertical integration contributes adversely to consumers welfare or not. The analysis is carried out using the gross profit, general selling administrative expenses and after tax profits of the distributors in the British film industry for the past 20 years, ranging from 1990 2009. As is in the treatment of oligopolies, there are different ways of measuring the game theory. It is either the use of Bertrand equilibrium (which focuses on the manipulation of price to gain market power) is employed, or the Cournot model (which talks about the adjustment of quantity) is used. In other cases, there is the use of intermediate models which deals with the combination of price and quantity adjustment to achieve competitive edge over other players in the industry. In t his analysis, Cowling and Muellers (1978) model will be employed. Their method is based on the Cournot-Nash equilibrium model. The distributors involved in this analysis will be divided into two categories as is the industrial structure. There will be a set that is involved in integration of the production and or exhibition aspect into the business of distribution, while the other set is basically the independent distributors, that is, those involved only in the business of distribution without recourse to other aspect of the industry. The next section will deal with a discussion into the industry. This will involve the history of the industry, the basic structure, size of the industry, how concentrated the industry is and a look into the recent development in the industry. A descriptive statistics into the distribution aspect of the industry will also be discussed. Chapter 3 (i.e. literature review) will deal with the approaches used in the analysis of the behaviour of oligopolies that collude in other to gain monopoly profits. The section will start with a brief review of the oligopoly theories as it affects the industry. The main model in this work, the Cournot-Nash model, will be reviewed before the discussion of the complications in the work of Cowling and Mueller (1978). The assumption that welfare loss is enhanced through vertically integration will then be reviewed. The methodology chapter (i.e. chapter 4) will be based on how the analysis is to be carried out. There will be the description of data, the met hods used and the problems encountered during the analysis. Chapter 5 will be based on the findings of the work. It will involve the presentation and discussion in the findings. The final section, chapter 6, will be a conclusion on the work and policy recommendation, if any. Chapter 2 The Industry The British film industry, over several years, can be classified as undulating, with its high and low peaks. The industry is characterised by volatility and persistent instability, and due to such inconsistencies, has attracted government intervention. There are catastrophic cycles in the history of British film. Fluctuations in cinema attendance and the degree of American dominance in the industry were major factors that influenced the industry. Despite these cycles, the industry is said to be the second largest in the world, next to that of US. This section would look at the history of the industry, the industrial structure (i.e. the key distinct but related sectors in the industry; production, distribution and exhibition), size and concentration. This would involve focusing on the pertinent issues that have contributed to the development of the industry over the years. After this, a discussion into recent developments of the industry would be done. History The emergence of the film industry can be attributed to the series of innovations encountered in the nineteenth century in the US, France and UK. Shortly after the UK dominance in the American market (accounting for about 15% share of the market), there was a slum in their dominance as a result of Americas expensive and heavily marketed productions, which resulted into the loss of indigenous followership to less than 10% (Bakker 2005). Despite this, the home audience increased prompting the government to introduce the Entertainment Tax in 1916. This is based on the premises that the industry is a sleeping giant, thereby including other forms of entertainment, like music hall and theatre in the tax. However, the tax was abolished in 1960 (Murphy 2004). The dominance of the American film market was unprecedented in the 1920s that the government had to intervene by the establishment of the Cinematograph Films Act in 1927. The act was to encourage the production of films indigenously and also set the criteria for the distribution and exhibition of films in the home industry. It was believed that the industry could help stimulate the exports of other goods and services in the British economy, and that it would help wade off American dominance in the industry. This act recorded significant success, as more production companies sprang up, among which are Warners, Fox and British International Pictures. The production of films in the UK doubled as a result. However, the criticism faced by the act has to do with the production of low quality films and low cost of the films, in order to meet the quota requirement set out by the Act. In 1936, the act was reviewed and it allocated quotas to both the distribution and exhibition sector of the i ndustry. Also, quality test was also included in the act. This was to encourage competitiveness in the international market for the industry. Financial institutions were also encouraged to participate in the industry through the provision financial assistance to firms in the industry. At the end of World War II, the industry experienced a boom, which saw cinema attendance soar. Of worthy mention is the existence of the Rank Organisation, a vertically integrated firm, involved in the production, distribution and exhibition of films in the industry. The firm dominated the industry in the 1940s, and was the largest film distributor at the time (UK Film Council Research and Statistics Unit 2009). The British government enhanced their role in the administration of the industry when it was realised the American film industry is taking over the home market, through the establishment of the National Film Finance Corporation (NFFC) and the Eady Levy in 1950. The Eady levy was a law enforcing the ploughing back of a percentage of the film profits back into the development of the industry (UK Film Council, 2009). In the early 1980s when Margaret Thatcher came into power, there was an attempt to create a free market in all industries, with the use of a deregulation policy. This was in view of breaking up monopolies, thereby, enhancing competitiveness in the economy. However, there was criticism that there would be a preference for profit maximisation of firms rather than the welfare of people (BFI Institute 2005, pg 1). In line with this deregulation policy, the Eady Levy was abolished in 1985 and the 25% tax break for film investors was removed. The withdrawal of government support in these areas made getting involved in the film business more risky. At the time, the only hope from the state was also privatised thereby curtailing financial assistance. The Rank Organisation failed at this time. Despite this, the industry still witnessed unprecedented growth. In the words of Leonard Quart, in his work The religion of the market cited in Friedman (1993), despite the Thatcher governments unwillin gness to aid the film industry, it did establish a general mood that encouraged economic risk-taking and experimentation with new and more innovative business practices (Friedman 1993, pg 25). Cannon Group became the dominant player in the industry and was involved not only in the financing of films, but was also engaged in the production, distribution and exhibition. But due to over expansion, the group became bankrupt. Structure, Size and Concentration The industry is characterised basically by activities in three areas, which include the production, the distribution and the exhibition of films. These activities are unique but are related in that the films produced are given to distributors, who market to the exhibitors that show it to the final audience. Thus from the process of production till the final stage where the films are screened, there is distributors who serve as middle men, who helps realise the potential of the film. Production The industry is production led. By production expenditure, the market is the fifth largest and is the eleventh largest with respected to the number of films produced as at 2008. The production sector is heavily dependent of inward investments, basically from the United States. This was attributed to the availability of tax relief, the high quality of workforce and the strength of the exchange rate. The fall of the UK pound contributed significantly to the rebound in the production of films. The total expenditure appreciated to about 20 per cent in 2009 when compared to that of the preceding year. Based on the UK Film Council Statistics in 2008, the sector has about 202 active production companies, with few large ones making films of substantial budgets and others producing mainly low budget films (UK Film Council 2009). Distribution Distribution has to do with the management of the release of films produced in order to earn revenue. The main function of the distributor is to convince the exhibitor in renting or booking each film after production. This is a value chain and it involves negotiation with exhibitors, sequencing of the various windows at which to screen the films, advertisement of the films produced and printing production of the films. However, there is also a weakness in this arm as most of the firms are dominated by the UK subsidiaries of American studios. As at 2008, these subsidiaries accounted for 78 per cent of the market power and the top distributors, numbering up to ten, were responsible for 95 per cent of the market share. The largest indigenous distributor in the industry in terms of gross box office is Entertainment Plc. It was responsible for 8 per cent of the market share in 2008. However, the distribution arm of the industry is taunted by audiovisual piracy, which contributed largely t o most of the losses experienced by firms involved. The marginal profit encountered are as a result of retail sale of DVDs and showing on television, with the Video on demand (VOD) market relatively underdeveloped, contributing marginally to the total revenue. The focus of this analysis is on the distribution aspect of the industry. Based on the characteristics of the sector, it is highly concentrated with few firms assuming a greater control of the market share. Unfortunately, this aspect of the British film industry has been given less attention in the past by state regulations, with more emphasis being given to production rather than distribution. However, the bulk of the profit generated in the industry is greatly enhanced by the activities of distributors as they are involved in the promotion and distribution of the work of the producers, helping achieve the full potential of the films. As stated earlier, this is because they act as intermediaries between film makers, exhibition outlets and the final audience. Due to their indispensable role, there absence in the industry would create a situation where there is neither reinvestment in film production nor the display of viable movies to the final consumers. Also, in their absence, the industry would be open to exploitation from external market, such as the domination in existence in the production aspect of the industry. There are several independent distributors who are UK-based operating in the sector and are basically divided into small and large independent distributors. Even though the large distributors are involved in the release of fewer titles in comparison with smaller ones, they still have control of the market share. Exhibition Exhibition has to do with the display of films to the final audience through theatre screening. The market is dominated by few large numbers, as is the case of the distributors, of firms. But these firms are not predominantly owned by foreign firms. In 2008, majority of the screens were controlled by firms; Odeon, Cineworld and Vue, two of which were owned by private equity firms. Recent Development Insert The industry contributed a total of GBP2.5bn to the economy in 2007, with production cropping up a large chunk of 48 per cent, distribution responsible 36 per cent and exhibition taking up the remaining 16 per cent. The industry also contributed to other aspects of the economy like exports and employment. In 2007, the balance of payment surplus accruing to the industry was estimated to about GBP232m. According to the Labour Force Survey conducted by the Office of National Statistics, there were over 35,000 jobs in the industry. There were over 7000 firms in the industry as at 2008 and these were mainly concentrated in the production arm of the industry. However, the concentration of activities in the distribution arm of the industry is concentrated in the hand of few. The contribution of distributors to the industry, and ultimately to the economy, makes it interesting for a study into how they contribute to welfare loss and how vertical integration affects the accumulation of monopoly profits/losses. Chapter 3 Literature Review From previous studies carried out by researchers, there were mixed results as regards the loss in social welfare by firms trying to gain the bulk of the market share in various industries. In the case of Harberger, he found out that the loss of welfare in the United States is at 0.1 of 1 per cent of the Gross National Product (GNP) (Harberger 1954). This finding confirmed that the loss of social welfare as a result of monopolistic tendencies is insignificant. This idea was also backed by others, even with the use of varying assumptions. However, this was under attack by Bergson (1973) who criticised the partial equilibrium framework employed. Bergson employed the general equilibrium approach, which assumed that social welfare can be captured through a social indifference curve. According to Cowling and Mueller (1978), it was argued that such assumptions brings about discrepancy between the variations in the price cost margins and the supposed constant elasticities of demand (Cowling and Mueller 1978). Thus, this analysis will employ the use of the partial equilibrium approach, following the work of Cowling and Mueller, which was based on the Cournot-Nash equilibrium approach. The next section deals with the brief review of oligopoly theories, the review of the model used, discussion of the complications of the Cowling-Mueller model, and how it affects the industry. Review of oligopoly theories The main feature of an oligopoly is the reliance of firms on the actions of the others, which makes it difficult to assume the simple solutions of a monopoly or perfect competition. There are two main forms clearly distinguished under the classical oligopoly theory, both being majorly determined by either price or quantity (Tasnadi 2006). In order to study the oligopoly markets, economists make use of the game theory in modelling their behaviours. There is the Bertrand competition, which relies on the manipulation of prices as a way of competition. On the other hand is the Cournot Nash competition, which describes the industry with oligopolistic tendency, as one in which companies compete on the amount of goods produced, with the assumptions of homogenous goods, no collusion, existence of market power, and rationality. There is no single model describing the workings of an oligopolistic market. This is because companies compete on varying platforms such as price, quantity, marketing , reputation, technological innovations, etc (Colander 2008). The Bertrand model of oligopolies focuses on price. The model illustrates the interactions between the firm (one who sets the price) and the customer (one who chooses the quantity to buy at the price given by the firm). The working of the model is based on the assumptions that goods are undifferentiated, no collusion and prices are set at the same time. Given the rationality of consumers, they buy from the firm who offers the lowest prices and if all the firms give the same price, they choose the firms to buy from at random. Assuming there is no capacity restriction, if a firm raises the price of its goods, it becomes likely that such firm would lose most or all its customers. In the same light, if the firm reduces prices below its marginal cost, it would lose money on every unit sold (Binger and Hoffman 1998). Thus, under the Bertrand model, the equilibrium is where the price is equals to marginal cost, resulting in zero-profit for the participating firms. However, relaxing the assu mption of capacity restrictions results in a situation where equilibrium is not achieved. The Cournot-Nash Model While the Bertrand model focuses on price, Cournot-Nash model emphasises the importance of quantity adjustment. The model assumes the existence of Cournot conjecture; that firms compete based on quantity rather than prices and that the behaviour of firms are stable. Equilibrium is reached at a point where neither firm desires to change what it produces based on its knowledge on what other firms produces. This is regarded as the Cournot-Nash equilibrium (Kreps 1990). Traditionally, the model considers two firms with the assumption that their marginal costs are linear but not necessarily identical. Each firm is believed to have the ability to decide on the level to produce in other to maximize profit, given the output level of the other firm and this is called the reaction function. In the case of N-number of firms, overall industry production curve is based on the reaction functions of other firms with respect to what the market leader produces. As in the game theory, each firm decide s on the best response function that helps maximize their profit, and if followed at all times results into the Nash equilibrium (Fulton 1997). In general, the Cournot theorem states that as the number of firms in the industry grows to infinity, it brings about competitive tendencies and pushes price towards marginal cost. In perfect competition, allocative efficiency requires that prices to be set equal to the marginal costs of production throughout the economy. If firms are able to restrict output in order to maintain price above the marginal costs this leads to a misallocation of resources and loss of economic welfare. The monopolist is able to raise his price above the level of marginal cost, as he is a price maker. This situation can be compared with the benchmark case of perfect competition where firms are price takers and cannot sell any unit of goods produced at a price higher than the marginal cost and cannot earn supernormal/abnormal profits. Fig 1: Welfare effect of Competition and Monopoly profits Figure 1 compares the welfare effects or performance of perfect competition and monopoly. It depicts the neoclassical case against monopoly. Theorists have formulated the welfare loss concept which measures the potential gain of a movement away from monopoly to perfect competition. The analysis shows the basic deadweight loss model used by Harberger (1954). In order to simplify the analysis, the assumption that costs are constant is used. If the industry is competitive, the firms cannot set price above MC (P=MC), thus the quantity produced is Qc. In figure 1, under perfect competition price would be at Pc and output Qc. Marshall stated that consumer surplus is the difference between what a consumer is willing to pay for a good and the amount actually paid for it. It is a measure of the benefits to a consumer of trading in a market. It is shown by the triangle between price and demand. Market demand is refered to as D (the amount consumers are willing to pay for an additional unit of the product). Thus, consumers pay a price Pc for all units purchased. Any marginal increase in output below Qc generates a difference between the price actually paid and the price consumers are willing to pay. This is the consumer surplus, represented by the larger triangle above marginal cost, depicting an absence of abnormal profit. Given a monopoly facing an equivalent demand and costs conditions, the maximisation of profit may be achieved through output reduction, which is at a point where MC=MR. Here, the price shifts to Pm, thereby setting price above MC, and quantity produced falls to Qm. The triangle above Pm is referred to as the surplus due to consumers in a monopolistic setting. The shaded portion A in the diagram is the supernormal profit due for a monopoly, which signifies the redistribution of wealth from consumers to firms. Thus, the decrease in consumer surplus, as a result of a competitive entity moving to monopoly is represented by the addition of the two shaded portions A and B. However, the net social loss accruing as a result of the existence of monopoly power is represented by the shaded part B (Sawyer 1981). In the work of Harberger, he argued that this triangle is really tiny and is nothing to worry about. Posner, in describing the net social loss, stated that: When market price rises above the competitive level, consumers who continue to purchase the sellers product at the new, higher price suffer a loss exactly offset by the additional revenue that the sellers obtain at the higher price. Those who stop buying the product suffer a loss not offset by any gain to the sellers. This is the deadweight loss from supracompetitive pricing and in traditional analysis its only social cost, being regarded merely as a transfer from consumers to producers (Posner 1975, pg. 807). Complications of the Cowling Mueller Model Observing the mark-up of price on marginal cost helps define the implied price elasticity of demand with the assumption of a profit maximizing behaviour, which also applies to a colluding oligopoly or pure monopoly. Following the work of Cowling and Mueller (1978), in defining a firms implied elasticity of demand, assumed that welfare loss will be estimated from their cost margins. (1) where we have as the price elasticity of demand for the industry; as the price given by firm i; and as the marginal cost of firm i. The estimates derived would help explain the amount of welfare loss (the single firms decision to set price above marginal cost) realised from the reaction functions of firms. The assumption that each firm in the industry possesses some degree of monopoly power is employed and will be applied on a firm by firm basis. This enables them to charge prices higher than the marginal cost of production, given there is perfect competition. This is to help in estimating the relative importance of the variations in each firms outputs. This draws more light on the interdependence of observed price distortions (dp) and changes in output (dq), as seen in the work of Cowling and Mueller (1978). Based on this assumption, the welfare loss of the firms can be derived from the partial equilibrium formula for welfare loss; Â ½dpdq. In a situation where the firms expectatio ns about the behaviour of other competing firms are borne out, it is assumed that = and = =1. Hence the equations; (2) (3) Following the assumption of constant marginal costs, monopoly profit term can be incorporated into the equation, thereby, resulting into (4) Harberger (1954) equated the elasticity of demand to be unitary, i.e. ÃŽÂ · = 1. This depicts that if dpi/pi is small, the social cost of monopoly would be insignificant. He argued that representing the elasticity of demand with a value of 1 was an attempt at compensating for the demerits of using a partial equilibrium measure of welfare loss to examine a structural change in the general equilibrium, and that this would not be so if individual firms cannot act as monopoly in terms of price manipulation. However Cowling and Mueller (1978) refuted this assumption by referring to it as a very awkward way of handling the problem which answers the criticisms raised by Bergson (1973) against the partial equilibrium approach as regards the interdependence of price distortions and change in output (pg. 730), even though their analysis was based on the so criticised partial equilibrium approach. Wenders (1967), as cited in Cowling and Mueller (1978), questioned Harbergers position, but wer e erroneous in their calculations due to ignorance in assuming that the degree of collusion is a variable. Thus, the assumption of joint profit maximization need not be used. Based on this, there is need for proper definition of the methodology involving the partial equilibrium approach, so as to derive plausible estimates from it (to be done later on in this discussion). In measuring the monopoly profits, the excess of actual profits over the long run competitive returns (which are the profits that are compatible with the long run survival in an equilibrium economy) is determined, after adjustment is made for the accommodation of risk, as in the case of Worcester (1973). He used a median profit rate of 90% in allowing for biasness: a rather ad hoc adjustment. The divergence of actual rates of profits and the mean rates was the root of monopoly profits in earlier studies, following that of Harberger. These studies treated industries whose profit is in the range of 5% above or below the mean profit as those that have created welfare loss. However, this will result in a downward biasness of the monopoly welfare estimate as it underestimates the level of monopoly returns. It is not feasible to lean ones analysis on the premises of equal effects on welfare loss by monopolists and firms in perfect competition. Even if the assumption holds, the problem of how to handle firms experiencing loss would arise. Rather, it is plausible to argue that these firms are in disequilibrium and as such, have costs above the competitive levels. Hence, in deriving the social cost of monopoly, the firms experiencing loss will be dropped. This is in line with the work of Cowling and Mueller, who assumed that the firms would return to their normal profits or would disappear, thereby, creating no long run loss to the economy. The role of vertical integration The effect of the firms trying to gain market power is also a contributory factor into the loss of social welfare. Vertical integration carves out niches for monopolistic possibilities in product and geographical areas. Vertical integration is divided into upstream (backward, deals with the production of basic inputs) and downstream (forward, deals with the production of finished or nearly finished products). When two or more operations are vertically integrated, there is a natural bias towards internal procurement of components even in the presence of inefficiency. Bounded rationality also has its role in the diseconomies effect of vertical integration. It would basically take place where it is mutually beneficial to do so and not necessarily when it is cheaper. According to Greenhut and Ohta (1976), vertical integration does not increase integrators monopoly power, but rather, eliminates transitional twist caused by increasing mark-ups. Not only does it eliminate such distortions, it improves the provision of differentiated goods. Carlton (1979) assumes the prevalence of downstream over upstream in an integrated world. Hence, integration is socially undesirable since the downstream firms cannot absorb risk as efficiently as the upstream. The market is less to be contestable if integration is embarked upon by established firms. This is because the possibility of a potential entrant having the know-how and the economies of scale in the successive stages of production is very slim. There is likely to be sunk costs, which may be too expensive for the new entrant, thereby raising entry barrier. However, the ability to discriminate hinges on being able to identify groups of customers having different demand elasticities, then being able to preven t them from price discrimination. This firm structure helps to prevent leakages between markets if the collusive oligopoly, engaging in the upstream successive stage of production, integrates into one or more downstream markets, while still possibly allowing sales of the upstream product to unintegrated firms for specific uses (Waterson 1984). In general, the vertical integration accrues to the firm benefits, which would not have been possible if independently functioning. Among the benefits are lower transaction costs, capturing upstream and downstream profit margins, reduction in uncertainty (i.e. there is always supply assurance), expansion of core competence and the ability to gain a considerable part of the market share. These benefits are supported by the existence of taxes and regulations of market transactions, economies of scale, and similarities between the integrated activities (Greaver 1999). According to Buzzel (1983), he argued that operating in an integrated basis results in the benefits being offset by costs and risks, among which he noted capital requirement, reduced flexibility, and loss of specialization. Firms enjoying monopoly power would act to defend their market through entry barriers, which is a potential free rider problem. Unless, the barriers to entry can be effectively coordinated, it would be difficult to derive a means of calculating above competitive profits. Given the unlikelihood associated with gaining monopoly profit without the expense of extra resource, it would be profitable to utilise extra resources to deter entry. Tullock (1967) and Posner (1975), as cited in Cowling and Waterson (2003), maintained that if the existence of competition for market power is granted by some authority and that the practice acquire real resource costs, it is possible that all the gains due on monopolistic tendencies may be frittered away in the struggle to obtain it. These resource costs may be in the form of excessive generation of advertising goodwill stock; involvement is excess production capacity and excessive costs on Research and Development by engaging in product differentiat ion. It was also believed that the efforts to acquire patent protection, tariff protection and other forms of unwarranted state treatment contribute significantly to welfare loss meted out by monopolies. So, Cowling and Muell

social theory :: essays research papers fc

no paper avail as of yetReport Writing - Rewrite! The chapter on report writing is very important for those who will be doing senior projects, or who will be doing formal reports at work. There are also many terrific advanced features in MS Word that you ought to know about and be experimenting with. Some sections of MHH 324 require that you do research and write a report paper (on top of everything else!) I would like to leave the research tasks for other courses, and have you focus on using standards for business reporting to dress up a paper which you've already done. Study the Report format suggestions of the text (Chapters 11-12) and also study the report template of your team, including the MS provided guides (modified somewhat by your instructor). [Tip: Go to your styles menu and advanced features in order to import a style which you like from one MS Word document to your Normal Template, and from there to a new document.] You might also find useful some ideas for formatting in several "reports" done by Steve. The first reviews some of the vision of Peter Drucker when it comes to thinking about new challenges to management. A second report explores the impact of technology on new ways of working and forms of organization. Haul out an old term paper which you've submitted in the past to one course or another. In a pinch you can borrow a pretty substantial term paper from a friend. Your goal is to "dress up" this old assignment such that you'd be willing ot incorporate it into a portfolio of your best work which you might show a prospective employer. You should include/use at the least, the following items in your report:  · Letter of Transmittal (cover letter) -- tell me what you learned and how you evaluate the assignment  · Title page - don't stick too close to tradition.. make it look professional but with excellent design  · Executive summary - as usual, single space, no indents  · Headings to at least 3 levels - use MSWord Styles as you write and revise the document.. it'll save you tons of time!  · Converting to a business-style document will ususally mean shorter paragraphs (one per idea), and many more levels of header organization. Don't hesitate to insert pull quotes, call-outs, or other sidebar features  · Format with appropriate margins and spacing.

Communication and Assessment in Nursing Essay

The structure of this essay is designed to show the importance of relationship centered communication. However it will begin with a brief definition of the essential concepts intrinsic to the topic of therapeutic communication, distinct therapeutic nurse-patient relationship. Thereafter, it will focus on verbal and nonverbal communication, listening, understanding, empathy and important aspects of confidentiality and privacy. IntroJust as chemistry sciences were adopted as the 20th century medical model, patient’s perspective into a relationship-centered communication has been suggested as appropriate for the 21st century. It is the medical dialogue that provides the fundamental vehicle through which the battle of perspectives is waged and the therapeutic relationship is defined (Roter D. 2000). In many regards, the primary challenge to the field is the development of therapeutic communication that will provide a valid representation of the therapeutic relationship (Craven & Hirnle 2000). The purpose of this essay is to explore the implications of therapeutic communications in the nature of the patient-nurse relationship and its expression in routine of medical practice. Therapeutic communication is defined as the face-to-face process of interacting that focuses on advancing the physical and emotional well-being of a patient (http://tpub.com/content/medical ). Communication is an essential process when providing culturally competent nursing care and it must be therapeutic in nature to be effective. It involves the use of techniques such as using silence, offering self, restating, reflecting, and seeking clarification to name a few. Therapeutic communication involves displaying a genuine interest in the person communicating that is demonstrated trough the use of a relaxed and comfortable body posture. Therapeutic communication requires the components of empathy, positive regard, and a positive sense of self (Craven & Hirnle 2000). But no single definition could possibly capture the rich and complex nature  of the relationships between patients and nurses. Each relationship is distinct, because both patient and nurse are distinctive and the way they interact and relate is unique (Parbury 2006). The therapeutic nurse/client relationship stands at the core of health nursing. Through the establishment of this relationship, nurses are ideally suited as therapists to lead clients toward accomplishing their health goals (Parbury 2006). Therapeutic relationships between patients and nurses are formed in the majority of situations. In this type of relationships nurse’s perspective is primarily that the patient is a patient, but there is also recognition and understanding of the patient as the person (Parbury 2006). There are few similarities between the therapeutic relationship and friendship. It’s important to both to have worth, friendliness, trust, care, honesty and respect. Some differences in values and attitudes can hinder both as well as poor communication strategies. A feeling of satisfaction is important to both and also transference (involves clients feelings and acting toward the therapist as they did to other individuals in the past, mother/father for example) can occur in both ( Craven & Hirnle 2000). Let’s look into differences between the therapeutic relationship and friendship. Contract. A contract implicit on exploit is usually negotiated between client and workers and may include payment together they agree on. Limits are set whereas in friendship there is usually no monetary reward or contracts exchanged (Craven & Hirnle 2000). Aims. In helping relationship there are specific goals. Friendship on the other hand, does not usually have agreed upon goals, it’s usually spontaneous. Focus. Helpee’s needs are the focus of attention in the helping relationship- the helper temporally sets aside personal needs. In contrast, friendship usually means that mutual needs are met in sharing way (Beck & Polite 2004). Time. Therapeutic relationship require time that is planned, limited and sometimes scheduled. In addition time is finite and perhaps negotiated by a contract. Time in friendships is mostly spontaneous and tends to have fewer limits (Parbury 2006). Objectivity. Therapeutic relationships require that the helper strives to be objective, and to act in client’s best interests. Objectivity is mostly impossible in friendships due to the fact that self interest is largely paramount (Gladys, Husted and Husted 2001)Acceptance. The helper tries to accept the client in therapeutic relationship thereby is able to understand the behavior of imposing value and judgments. On the other hand friendships usually terminate when differences in values or interests become too great. After actively listening to a patient it is natural for a nurse to respond verbally. The nurse’s initial verbal responses set the direction for further interaction. Because there is a variety of possible ways to respond, nurses must ensure that their verbal responses move the relationship in a desired and intended direction (Parbury 2006). Choice of the response is based on insight into how it may affect the patient, the interaction and the relationship. A nurse who has this insight and awareness is in the best position to respond in the manner that both matches the current situation and realizes the response’s desired intent (Parbury 2006). Nonverbal responses are very important and the ability to recognize and interpret this kind of responses depends upon consistent development of observation skills. As we continue to mature in our role and responsibilities in the healthcare team, both clinical knowledge and understanding of human behavior will also grow (Beck & Polit 2000). Our growth in both knowledge and understanding will contribute to our ability to recognize and interpret many kinds of nonverbal communication. Our sensitivity in listening with our eyes will become as refined as-if not better than-listening with our ears (Roter 2000). Most frequently, the relationship and communication between patient and nurse  begins with an interview, during which the nurse collects pertinent data about the patient (Parbury 2006). The effectiveness of an interview is influenced by both the amount of information and the degree of motivation possessed by the patient (Parbury 2006). Factors that enhance the quality of an interview consist of the participant’s knowledge of the subject under consideration; his patience, temperament, and listening skills; and our attention to both verbal and nonverbal cues. Courtesy, understanding, and nonjudgmental attitudes must be mutual goals of both the interviewee and the interviewer (Roter 2000). Understanding a patient’s experience, that is, viewing the world from patient’s perspective is one of the most essential aspects of interacting and building relationships in nursing (Parbury 2006). In patient-nurse relationship it is the nurse’s responsibility to make mutual understanding easier, which would be the basis of meaningful interaction. Mutual understanding requires time, effort, commitment and skill. It can be challenging for one person to understand and appreciate another person’s reality. Listening and effective attending would give ability to the nurse to develop an understanding of the patient’s experience (Parbury 2006). Effective listening demonstrates open acceptance of the patient, and encourages the patient to interact. Listening to the patient and watching how he listens. Observing how he gives and receives both verbal and nonverbal responses. When nurses listen, just listen, they pay careful attention to what they hear and observe, they focus on what is expressed by the patient and they try to determine what the patient is meaning. Effective listening requires receptivity, sustained concentration and astute observation. The skill of listening is fundamental and crucial to patient-nurse relationship (Ooijen 2000). Listening permeates the entire relationship; if meaningful interpersonal connections are to occur, listening must be engaged in throughout every interaction in therapeutic relationship (Parbury 2006). The skills of clarification are used whenever nurses are uncertain or unsure about what patients are saying. Clarification is often achieved trough the use of probing skills. At times a restatement of what a patient has said is an effective means of clarifying (Parbury 2006). Other times, nurses clarify what a patient has said by sharing how they might feel, think and perceive the situation if they were the patient. Reflecting feelings is useful too, because it conveys the nurse’s recognition of feelings and confirms the existence of emotions. When used to collect information, therapeutic communication requires a great deal of sensitivity as well as expertise in using interviewing skills (Roter 2000). To ensure the identification and clarification of the patient’s thoughts and feelings, we, as the interviewers, must observe his behavior. By using the skills of understanding nurses can arrive at knowing what patient is experiencing and thus are in a better position to be empathetic. Empathy is the ability to perceive the world from another person’s view, and take on the perspective of another, while not losing one’s own perspective (Parbury 2006). The ability to enter to another person’s experience to perceive it accurately and to understand how the situation is viewed from the client’s perspective is very important in therapeutic communication. By using therapeutic communication, we attempt to learn as much as we can about the patient in relation to his illness. To accomplish this learning, both the sender and the receiver must be consciously aware of the confidentiality of the information disclosed and received during the communication process (Roter 2000). Confidentiality is not merely keeping patient information inside the confines of a particular setting, but also considering what should be shared, trough reporting and recording, with other nurses and other health care professionals (Parbury 2006).There has to be a therapeutic reason for invading a patient’s privacy. Information that has no direct bearing on the nursing or other healthcare of the patient should be considered confidential and treated as such (Parbury 2006). Finally, interpret and record the data we have observed. As I mentioned earlier, listening is one of the most difficult skills to master. It  requires maintaining an open mind, eliminating both internal and external noise and distractions, and channeling attention to all verbal and nonverbal messages (Roter 2000). Listening involves the ability to recognize pitch and tone of voice, evaluate vocabulary and choice of words, and recognize hesitancy or intensity of speech as part of the total communication attempt. The patient crying aloud for help after a fall is communicating a need for assistance. This cry for help sounds very different from the call for assistance we might make when requesting help in transcribing a physician’s order (Roter 2000). Also advances in both video recording technology and participant observations have led us to consider ways in which these observational methods may be blended to answer research questions. Such innovations in data collection have t he potential to extend our understanding of social interactions in important ways (Paterson, Bottorf & Hewat 2003). ConclusionFinally, essential nature between patients and nurses is that of mutual understanding. It is clear that to function effectively in the therapeutic communication, we need to be informed and skilled practitioners, but not only that, active listening, empathy, understanding is necessary when we there to help our patients. They become calmer and more appreciated after having someone listen to them and express their feelings. Nurse needs to have the ability to express verbally and nonverbally, clarifying and reflecting with the patient, spending time and accepting and understanding behavior of imposing value and judgments. Also let the patient know that we care and that they are able to trust because of information that they share with us stays confidential and their privacy will not be damaged. Clearly therapeutic communication is central to health nursing and through this process nurse-client relationships can be enhanced. References: Andersen, C., & Adamsen, L. (2001). Continuous video recording: a new clinical research tool for studying the nursing care of cancer patients. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 35, 257-267. Beck C.T., Polit D.F. (2000) Nursing Research: Principles and Methods Patient Education Counseling. Journal article 39(1):5-15. Lippincott W&W. Carol, D. Tamparo, Wilburta, Q. Lindh (2000) Therapeutic relationships for Health Professionals. Craven, R.F. & Hirnle, C. J. (2000) Fundamentals of Nursing: Human Health and Function, (4th edition). Husted, G. L., & Husted, J. H. (2001).Ethical decision making in nursing (3rd ed.). New York: Springer. Ooijen, E.V. (2000) Clinical Supervision a Practical Guide. Policies and Procedures. Health Visitors. Harcourt Pub. Lim. Parbury, S. J. 2006 Patient and Person. Interpersonal skills in Nursing. (3rd ed.)Sydney: Harcourt. Paterson, B., Bottorff, J., & Hewatt, R. (2003). Blending observational methods: Possibilities, strategies, and challenges. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 2 (1). Article 3. Retrieved [12.04.07] from http://www.ualberta.ca/~iiqm/backissues/2_1/ html/patersonetal.htmlRoter D. (2000) The Role of Information Technology and Informatics Research in the Nurse-Patient Relationship. Retrieved [7.04.07] from http://adr.iadrjournals.org/cgi/content/full/17/1/77Volbert R.M (2002) Nursing Ethics, Communities in Dialogue. New Jersey. Prentice Hall. Wicks D. (1999) Nurses and doctors at work. Rethinking professional boundaries. Deidre Wicks. Lindeman, C., & McAthie, M. (1999). Fundamentals of Contemporary Nursing Practice. Philadelphia: Saunders. Zilm, G., & Entwistle, C. (2002).The smart way. Canada: Harcourt.

Evolution Psychology Essay

For many years, personality psychology and behavior studies have always viewed individuals as risk indisposed or risk seekers. However, recent studies in the field of evolution psychology are changing these convectional assessments of individuals risk taking. There is evidence that risk taking in individuals is domain specific. This understanding of human behaviors has brought about a better understanding of the inter individual and intra individual variations in the risk taking tendencies. The basic arguments of evolution psychology are that the human brain has the ability to adapt in order to solve the recurrent problems and cannot be as static as a computer. The domain in the adaptation of the mind in this case is the problems, challenges or pressures faced by the individual. The psychological adaptations of human being to the recurrent problems have been compared to the physiological evolution when an adaptation occurs to solve challenges in a specific domain. Consequently, psychological evolution is domain specific. Recent studies have therefore indicated that risks and challenges that individuals are exposed to results into development of mental algorithms that provide a solution to the risks related to the domain (Kruger, 2007). Human beings have faced various problems and challenges in the history or evolution. These challenges are reflected by the risk taking domain. There are several domains that have been studies in evolution psychology. One of the most important domains is group competition. The human race was able to obtain dominance in the universe ecosystem at some during the history of evolution. For many ages, the human race has been hostile to itself with humans rising against other humans. It is believed that the most significant selection pressure that ever existed was competition between groups. These competitions are evident in the modern world for example in business, sports, politics, gang violence, ethic and racial hostility and uprisings between communities and nations. Moreover, the competition is promoted by cooperation between groups (Kruger, 2007). Competition within a certain group is also an important domain in the study of evolution psychology. Competition within the group is aimed at promoting an individuals position in the group rather than eliminating a possible threat. However, psychical threat and the resultant competition are also evident within a group. It is also important to note that competition within a group is more complex and therefore very significant in psychological evolution. This is because it involves both physical and social infighting and competition. In many societies, the fight for higher status in the society is more relevant to the males that females although the competition is evident in both sexes. The relevance of social status to the males has been as a result of cultural values and mating patterns that are evident in all societies. For example, mating success in males is a function of the individual’s social status since females seek males of high social status and they can use their resources to pressurize other males. For this reason, throughout history, social status has always dictated access to mates, mating success and reproductive success in males. Moreover, the economic and social competitiveness of male in the society has been compared to a survival and reproductive advantage presented by peacock’s tail in the Darwin theory of evolution (Kruger, 2007). Sociosexuality or the perception of a sexual relationship requirement varies from one individual to another. Some individuals have unrestricted sociosexuality and have a perception that mating efforts requires more resources sacrificing parental efforts. Consequently, the success of matting in males increases with increase in number of mates provided that reproduction is not limited. On the other hand, female mating success does not increase with the increase in the number of mating partners. However, extra pair mating relationships has been associated with many risks such as desertion of the mate and transmission of infections. They could also lead to violence and hatred between jealous partners. Other that the social and resource allocation challenges that face an individual, there are environmental risks and challenges that are significant in psychological evolution. Studies carried out over the years have indicated that forage strategies that have been evident throughout the history have been an important aspect of human survival (Kruger, 2007). In a research carried out by Kruger et al (2007), student from two universities, university of South Dakota and University of Michigan, reacted to questioners posted online. They were requested to rate thirty risky behaviors and the tendencies in which they would involve themselves in these risky behaviors. In another survey conducted at the University of Michigan, students from diverse ethnic backgrounds completed the same online questioners for partial fulfillment of an academic course in the university. From the two surveys, the results were consistent with the earlier theoretical predictions. The risk taking domains were a clear reflection of the recurrent social and environmental challenges that faced the individuals. Kruger et al (2007) were able to generate behavior trends that matched the specific domains in the modern society. They were also successful in distinguishing between significant domains in the society such as within group and between group competitions. However, it was confirmed that between groups competition was not limited in scope as for the case of ancient competition, while competition within the group was observed to be even more complex. Moreover, the fertility risks which are induced by behaviors were found to be lower than expected or observed in other similar studies. The linkage between fertility risks and other specific domains was observed to be generally lower except in its linkage with mating behaviors and allocation of social and economic resources. The study concluded that that people who have more risk taking behaviors in specific domain do not show similar trends in other domains. The high tendencies of risk taking in males compared to females with exceptional cases in environmental risks were also confirmed to be consistent with the literature. It was also concluded that men benefit more from risky behaviors when compared to females. Moreover, there are some riskier behaviors that are more likely to be observed in females than in males such as risking ones life to save a child because of the limited opportunities of getting another offspring in the future and the psychological investment placed on the child by the mother. This modern approach of development psychology and the current risk scale is an important step in the validation of evolution based psychological assessments of behaviors. The study of the relationship between risk taking behaviors in different individuals in the society and the survival and reproduction challenges faced by individuals is important. Reference Kruger, D. J. , Wang, X. T. & Wilker, A. (2007). â€Å"Towards the development of an evolutionarily valid domain-specific risk-taking scale. † Evolutionary Psychology, 5(3): pp 555-568